PERSUASIVE WRITING A diplomat is one who can tell you to go to hell, and you will actually look forward to the trip.

  An argument is a reasonable elaboration of a proposition.
Proposition is to argument as thesis is to 5-paragraph essay.

Schopenhauer, a German philosopher tells us there are two ways to win an argument:
1.  Include a  Greek or Latin quotation (however irrelevant) to impress to the uninformed.
2.  Loftily state, "That's all very well in theory, but it won't do in practice."

ARGUMENTS IN EVERYDAY LIFE:

Let's go to Burger King instead of McDonald's.

Mandatory seat belt laws are an intrusion of my civil rights.

WHAT DO ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAYS DO?

Some arguments declare the best solution to a problem

"Raising the drinking age will decrease traffic accidents"

Some arguments argue a certain way of looking at an issue

"Beauty pageants degrade women"

Some arguments urge you to accept a plan of action - to vote yes for a cause

"Voters should pass ordinance 10 to fund a new aquatic center."

WHERE ELSE DO YOU SEE ARGUMENTS?

Some arguments are carried on via letters

"Would you reimburse me, repair this"

"I am the best candidate for the job - the promotion...

Some arguments are done via advertising in magazines, billboards, TV, radio...

"Buy Cold Eeze; accept no substitutes"

Some arguments are written up in pamphlets, long reports, books

Assessment of Prior Learning - give me credit for these courses

HOW DO YOU KNOW IF YOU'VE WRITTEN A GOOD ARGUMENT?

HOW DO I DEVELOP AND ORGANIZE AN EFFECTIVE ARGUMENT?

l. Select a good topic

(not what is the rate of exchange today?)

2. Come up with a thesis (proposition)

3. Write down a listing of reasons, points, studies, experiences, examples, anecdotes, definitions, graphs..., that supports your view

4. Anticipate the opposing view.

(Arguments assume there is more than one side to the issue)

5. Write down a listing of everything the opposition might argue.

6. Prepare a refutation for each of these points

7. Know and remember your audience

(young, old, drug taking, abstainers, poor, rich, athletic...)

Point # 8 - continued pro/con list

CLASS NOTES SALE OF CLASS NOTES

1. unfair advantage for some l. helps students to get better test,

students in some classes course grades

2. note-taking is a skill students 2. helps students to learn, organize

need to develop material

3. rich students can afford and 3. helps if you're sick and can't

poor can't attend class

4. prevents students from learning 4. shows students good models for taking notes and outlining them

5. encourages class cutting 5. other study guides are on the

market, why not these?

6. missing class means no chance 6. gives starving graduate students

to ask questions, participate in jobs

discussions

7. notes taken by others are often 7. no law against sale of notes, free

inaccurate country

8. some professors & students don't

like strangers in classroom

9. Decide which points you want to use in your essay.

points 4 & 9 - professional note-taking services keep students from developing

own thinking and organizational skills

[points 5 * 7 = [professional; note-taking services discourage class attendance and participation

points l & 3 - unfair advantages to some students

10. Select your opposition's strongest claim & refute it:

point 2 - it is beneficial to students because it helps students to learn and organize material

11. Come up with a working thesis (although/because format is easy)

Although some students maintain that using professional note-taking services helps them learn more, such services should be banned from our campus because they prevent students from developing their own thinking and organizational skills, they discourage class attendance, and they give unfair advantages to some students.

12. Organize your essay appropriately.

On the next page are four sample development plans:

Point 12 continued - sample organizations

Pattern A (presents your side first)

Thesis

Body paragraph l: you present your first point and its supporting evidence

Body paragraph 2: you present your second point and its supporting evidence

Body paragraph 3: you refute your opposition's first point

Body paragraph 4: you refute your opposition's second point

Conclusion

Pattern B (clears away opposition's claims before your present your side)

Thesis

Body paragraph l: you refute your opposition's first point

Body paragraph 2: you refute your opposition's second point

Body paragraph 3: you present your first point and its supporting evidence

Conclusion

Pattern C: Use when the main arguments you want to present are the same ones that will refute or answer your opposition's primary claims)

Thesis

Body paragraph l (or l & 2): you present your first point and its supporting evidence, which also refutes one of your opposition's claims.

Body paragraph 2 (or 3 & 4) you present a second point and its supporting evidence, which also refutes a second opposition claim

Body paragraph 3 ( or 5 & 6) you present a third point and its supporting evidence, which also refutes a third opposition claim

Conclusion

Pattern D - a combination approach - you might have a strong point to argue, another point that simultaneously answers one of your opposition's strongest claims, and another opposition point you want to refute

Thesis

Body paragraph l A point for your side

body paragraph 2 One of your points, which also refutes an opposition claim

Body paragraph 3: Your refutation of another opposition claim

Conclusion

Pattern E - Rogerian technique (Instead of going on the defensive and trying to "win" the argument, each side should try to recognize common ground and then develop a solution that will address the needs of both parties. A Rogerian argument uses the following techniques:

1. A clear objective statement of the problem or issue

2. a clear, objective summary of the opposition's position that shows you understand its point of view and goals.

3. a clear, objective summary of your point of view , stated in non-threatening language.

4. a discussion that emphasized the beliefs, values, and goals that you and your opposition have in common.

5. a description of any of your points that you are willing to concede or compromise.

6. an explanation of a plan or proposed solution that meets the needs of both sides.

l3. Write a sketchy outline according to a development pattern

(pattern A for example)

Revised working thesis and essay map: Professional note-taking services should be banned from our campus. Not only do they give some students unfair advantages and discourage class attendance, they prevent students from developing and practicing good thinking skills.

Body Paragraph l: (a first point for the writer's side): Services penalize some students - those who haven't enough money or take other sections or enroll in classes without notes.

Body paragraph 2 (another point for the writer's side): The service encourages cutting class so students miss opportunities to ask questions, participate in discussion, talk to instructor, see visual aids, etc.

Body paragraph 3: (rebuttal of opposition's strongest claim): Services claim they help students learn more, but they don't because they're doing the work students ought to be doing themselves. Students must learn to think and organize for themselves.

14. Argue your ideas logically by providing sufficient reasons for your position. Some ways of supporting your ideas are as follows:

A. Give examples (real or hypothetical: Cutting class because you have access to professional notes can be harmful; for instance, you might miss seeing some slides or graphics essential to your understanding of the lecture.

B. Present a comparison or contrast: in contrast to reading 'canned' notes, outlining your own notes help you remember the material.

C. Show a cause and effect relationship: Dependence on professional notes may mean that some students will never learn to organize their own responses to classroom discussions.

D. Argue by definition: Passively reading through professional notes isn't a learning experience in which one's mind is engaged.

15. And finally, what NOT to do for a logical argument:

1. Hasty generalization: The writer bases the argument on insufficient or unrepresentative evidence.

ex. You own two poodles & they've attacked you - conclusion - all poodles are vicious

ex. You interview only athletes - conclusion university students favor a new stadium.

2. Begging the question: The writer presents as truth what is supposed to be proven by the argument.

ex. "Dangerous pornography should be banned" begs the question because the writer gives no evidence for what must first be argued, not merely asserted - that pornography is dangerous.

3. Red herring: The writer introduces an irrelevant point to divert the readers' attention from the main issue.

ex. A says B does not do dishes when it's his turn. B then brings up time A did not repay debt.

4. Argument ad hominem:: The writer attacks the opponent's character rather than the opponent's argument.

ex. don't go to that eye doctor - he's been divorced 5 times .

5. Argument ad popolum: The writer evades the subject by appealing to the readers' emotional reactions to certain subjects:

ex. "If you are a true American, you will vote against the referendum on busing.' The writer avoids any discussion on the merits or weaknesses of the bill and merely substitutes an emotional appeal.

6. Either/or: The writer tries to convince the readers that there are only two sides to an issue - one right & one wrong.

ex. "If you don't go to war against Iceland, you don't love your country."

7. Hypostatization: The writer uses an abstract concept as if it were a concrete reality.

ex. "History has taught us.....Science has proven....Research has discovered..."

8. Bandwagon appeal: The writer tries to validate a point by intimating that "everyone else believes in this."

ex. Everyone who demands real taste smokes Phooey cigarettes.

Discriminating women use Smacky Mount lipstick.

9. Straw Man: The writer selects the opposition's weakest or most insignificant point to argue against, to divert the readers attention from the real issue.

ex. Nixon said he'd keep Checkers for Tricia - he never mentioned returning $l8,000 in missing campaign funds.

10. Faulty analogy: The writer uses an extended comparison as proof of a point

ex. Putting teenagers in sex education classes is like taking an alcoholic to a bar.

11 Post hoc fallacy (after this): Assuming that because one event follows another in time, the first event caused the second.

ex. Marijuana leads to heroin - cigarettes lead to marijuana - coffee leads to cigarettes...

12. Inappropriate authority: Because one is talented in one field, one may not be talented in all fields.

ex. sports figures may know sneakers, but not necessarily the best pantyhose or medicine

Points worth "noting" regarding the essay

Introduction: Presents the controversy

States the thesis

Gives an essay map

2nd Paragraph: Gives a point for the writer's position: Note-taking services are unfair to some students

3rd Paragraph: Another point for the writer's position - professional notes discourage students from attending and participating in class

4th paragraph: presentation and rebuttal of the opposition's claim that students learn more using professional notes

conclusion: restatement of thesis - ending on pun to emphasize the main idea.

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Possible topics for argumentative essays

Schools should extend academic year to prepare students for technical world

Bilingual education - harmful/good

Mandatory on-the-job drug testing

Limiting advertising of alcohol

Changing foreign language requirements

Financial compensation for organ donors

Gun control

Student evaluations should/should not be a major consideration in rehiring a teacher

The KIKK (or other controversial organization) should /should not speak on campus

Censorship issues

Euthanasia

Cap. punishment