Learning Outcome

• In which ways were Plato and Aristotle  of one voice in ethical philosophy?
• What are Aristotle's three key questions?
• What is happiness according to Aristotle?

"In medio stat virtus" is the ancient idea of morality.  it means, "virtue lies in the middle" between the two extremes.  In other words, seek moderation.

A virtue is a habit of acting in a particular way.

A virtuous act is a particular act of virtue.

Aristotle's ethics are an attempt to answer the question, "What is the good or ultimate goal of human life?" (Dr. Philip Carey)

Three questions Aristotle asks are:

1. What is the good for human life?
2. What is the end (purpose) of human life?
3. What is happiness  (Dr. Philip Cary)

Happiness is the goal of human life
Happiness is the  activity of the rational soul in accordance to reason

Can't we all recognize traits of ethical persons? Do you need to read Abraham Maslow's work to discover the profile of  ethical persons:

• They delight  in bringing about justice
• They delight in stopping cruelty and exploitation
• They love virtue  to be rewarded
• They enjoy doing good
• They get great pleasure from knowing admirable people
• They uniformly consider their work to be worthwhile, important, & essential
• They respond with anger when mean things are done
• They like doing things well
• They enjoy watching and helping the self-actualization of others
• They enjoy watching happiness and helping to bring it about.

Aristotle

All that man knows comes to us through the senses:    Therefore goodness and morality is known through practical understanding rather than through mystical encounters. We do not know through the forms.

Aristotle and Plato saw eye to eye  on the following ethical doctrines:

• The distinctive function of humans is to exercise reason
• Good character entails reasoning in accord with wisdom
• Wisdom brings happiness (self-fulfillment)
• The highest form of happiness is a life based on philosophical reflection.(Martin 46)

The Doctrine of the Mean - or the Doctrine of the Golden Mean.

Virtue consists in hitting the mean. Aristotle defines the mean as morally reasonable.

There are intellectual virtues and moral virtues

Intellectual virtues represent excellences in reasoning skills and  can be taught. there is no limit to these.
Moral virtues are products of habits. These are planted during youth  and flourish in adulthood. Moral virtues are defined by limit - between excess (too much) and defect (too little) 

Applies to moral virtues, such as courage, temperance, justice and generosity

Aristotle was essentially at one with Socrates and Plato and apart from the sophists  by expressing an openness to the intelligible order or reality beyond that of the senses. The higher order of the intellect provides man with a deeper and higher knowledge

Thomas Aquinas  1224-1274

Thomas Aquinas is said to have "Christianized" Aristotle. He adopted Aristotle's views and spiced them up with theology (in the same way that clothing designers "update"  and modernize old classic styles)

Aquinas's virtue ethics revolved around the four Greek virtues: prudence, justice, fortitude and  temperance.

Reason no longer remained the highest purpose of life. Reason's role was elevated to proving god's existence. and to discern the "natural laws."

Living the good life, according to reason would not only bring us eudemonia, but would lead us to the perfect  happiness, our goal of the beatific vision in heaven   

The cardinal virtues should rule our life. Thomas prays:
Give me justice to submit to thee;
prudence to avoid the snares of the enemy;
temperance to keep the just mean;
fortitude to bear adversities with patience.

Fortitude implies the strength and courage to endure and overcome dangers and temptations (sin)  and to act in the face of obstacles.

Temperance implies refraining from doing evil, as well as voluntary sacrifices, such as fasting and chastity for the sake of the kingdom. 

The cardinal virtues lead us to the highest virtues, the theological virtues ; faith, hope, and love.

Both Thomas and Aristotle saw the cardinal virtues as the hinge virtues  as all other virtues are related to  or a hinged upon them. The emphasis of  particular values varied with Aristotle and Thomas.  For example the idea of charity as loving all mankind would not compute for Aristotle, as he love exceptional people in his community who achieved a high degree of virtue. Similarly with the Greeks , there is an emphasis on the exuberance of the                physical body, so fasting and chastity for the sake of the kingdom would make no sense.  The greatest sin for Aristotle was pride - setting oneself above God and doing one's will; An excess of pride was not as  serious for Aristotle.

David Hume (1711- 1766)

Hume's virtue ethics was not based on religious faith, nor on the praise of reason.

While Thomas sees benevolence as a central virtue, Hume sees benevolence as a supreme virtue, and is thus called the "Philosopher of Benevolence."

Martin writes, "Hume argued that reason does not provide the moral ends of human life. it merely identifies facts and logical relationships among ideas. Moral purpose in human life derive from sentiment" (52).  a crucial sentiment is sympathy.

"Sympathy, for Hue, is not a virtue, but it enables us to identify and appreciate virtues.  It makes us naturally inclined to approve of benevolence in all its forms" (Martin 52)

Benevolence awakens man's soul to act in a truly human way.

Alasdair MacIntyre

Claims above theories are too simplistic because man life is complex. each human life is a "narrative quest" wherein we must seek what is right for us personally.  we cannot refer to simplistic charts

Although virtues are qualities that help us in our quest, they are not the complete picture.  "The good life for man is spent in seeking the good life for man, and the virtues necessary for the seeking are those which will enable us to understand what more and what else the good life for man is" (After Virtue  1981, page 204). 

Edmund Pincoffs

While MacIntyre often spoke of virtue in terms of profession, Pincoffs emphasized the human aspect: "the natural home of the language of virtue and vice is in that region of our lives in which we must choose between, not acts, line of acting, or policies, but persons" (Quandaries and Virtues 1986  page 78).

Martin writes, "For Pincoffs, forgoing unfair advantages to ourselves is the minimal requirement of morality, and it is a firm requirement. the mandatory virtues pertain to this area of morality. Honesty, truthfulness, and nonrecklessness, for example, are always required.  The nonmandatory virtues, by contrast, indicate desirable, though not obligatory traits [ benevolence, altruism, selflessness, sensitivity, forgivingness]" (57).

Once criticism of Pincoff is in the classification of his virtues. for example, he lists the following as nonmoral virtues: tolerance, appreciativeness, and decency. Some critics say these should e moral virtues (Martin 57).

Another criticism is that his vision is too narrow. That virtues do  much more than serve as guides when choosing between people: "Virtues serve as guides for all our actions, not just those of choosing among persons"  (Martin 57).

Pincoff defines virtues as excellences in choosing among persons, whereas MacIntyre "defines virtues as desirable traits  that bring unity to the lives of people whose specific good is constantly being reshaped through participation in practices, moral traditions, and personal relationships" (Martin 58)

Aristotle

After this lecture, you will be able to answer the following questions:

• What is happiness or the happy life?
• Describe the qualities of a happy person that you know.
• What is Aristotle's Teleology?
• What is entelechy?
• What is eudaimonia?

Brief Biography (384 - 322 B.C.)

Born in Stagira in 384 B.C.
Son of a physician
Enrolled at the Academy
Studied under Plato for 20 years
After Plato died he went to Asia Minor & married Pythias, the niece of a local king.
He later returned to Macedonia & became tutor of Alexander the Great.
Has one son, Nichomachus,a product of a domestic union with Herpyllis
After eight years he returned to Athens (335-332 B.C.)
There he established the Lycceum, a new school.
It was patterned after Plato's Academy - dialogues, friendly
Left Athens in 323 arfter Alexander the Great died.
Athenians wanted to do away with "macedonian" control.
He died in exile in 322 B.C. insofar as community life.

Aristotle's teleology

Nichomachean Ethics opening words: "Every craft and every investigation and likewise every action and decision, seems to aim at some good."
A ship is the end of shipbuilding, health is the end of medicine.

To understand the good life, one should understand the word, "entelechy" - an inner urge to become a unique self.  An acorn has the urge to be a mighty oak tree.

Humans must realize their true selves to be fulfilled. We must develop and express our entelechy

(Left off with Falikowski page 41)

Criticism of Aristotle:

Critics claim Aristotle's ultimate appeal to moral prudence is as much of a dead end as Plato's appeal to the Form of the Good.
Rule-oriented ethicists fault Aristotle for not looking for general rules. (Martin 49)

Greek ethics is also faulted by contemporary ethicists because their ethics rest on three questionable claims:

1. Human beings have one distinctive function;
2. That function is reasoning; and
3.  Because this function is distinctively human, it defines human good (as life in accord with reason). Aristotle fails to explain how we shift from is distinctive of to is the basis of goodness.   Further, reasoning is too broad a term (Martin 50).     

The Cardinal Virtues

Prudence: wisdom.  It allows a person to choose wisely. it is acting with judgements.. It is selecting the best possible course. the virtue to see what is the right thing to do and to choose it to achieve a god end.

Justice;  It is to give another or society its due.. This virtue directs a person to act fairly and honestly - even in the face of personal loss.

Fortitude:  Enables individuals to face difficulties with courage and hope.  it is not rashness in the face of adversity.

Temperance:  Enables one to act in a moderate and reasonable way. it directs one to control his passion, emotions and desires so that they operate for one's total good - as distinct from one's immediate desire.  It is not fear and prudishness. Iit directs us to act in moderation in all things.

Cardinal virtues promote more specific virtues, such as patience, perseverance, truthfulness, obedience, piety, courtesy, chastity

"In medio stat virtus" is the ancient idea of morality.  it means, "virtue lies in the middle" between the two extremes.  In other words, seek moderation.

Aristotle's Virtues: courage, temperance, liberality (charity) , magnificence (entertaining well), good temper, friendliness, wittiness, justice